Painting: Vincent Van Gogh, Bedroom in Arles

On a smaller canvas than two other similar paintings, Vincent Van Gogh carefully painted for the third time his bedroom in Arles, a charming town in the south of France, and thus created this approximately 22 ? x 29’’ artwork. In fact, Van Gogh made three almost identical paintings on the theme of his bedroom and are named  « Bedroom in Arles  ». The first one, kept at the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam is painted in October 1888. About a year after, Van Gogh made two copies: one of which is the same size and is preserved today at the Art Institute of Chicago. The third one is currently at De Young Museum in San Francisco (but originally belongs to the Musee d’Orsay in Paris) and is smaller than the others1. This oil painting on a linen canvas represents Van Gogh’s tidy bedroom. Nothing lets us think that this is the room of a painter. We do not know this because he does not display his painting equipment. Nothing lies around, not even a paint tube in a corner or a brush. This bedroom seems to be for relaxation and not for his work as a painter. Here, he could finally forget his fatigue, have some comfort, sleep in peace. The bed is thus the dominant subject of the painting, suggesting the importance of comfort and rest. By painting his bedroom where everything is in its place, the painter may also want to show that he is a very neat man who cares for himself, and who organizes his life in a reasonable manner. In addition to the prominent bed, this room exudes quietness and expresses, absolute rest by its various shades. Indeed, the room has beautiful shiny colors. In Holland, where the painter was born2, the weather is not always nice and the sky is therefore often gray. Here however, there are multiple vibrant colors that certainly illustrate the happy life he had in France. Perhaps he had come to Arles for the sun and for him, it was an immense joy to live in such bright bedroom, bursting with colors. What is also fascinating about this piece of art is how the painter highlights the simplicity of his bedroom through the medium of color:  « the pale lilac walls, the floor of an old brown, the chairs and bed chrome yellow, the blood red cover, the orange little table and the blue basin†, as the painter describes it. Van Gogh asserted that he wanted to express a complete rest by handling all these different shades2. The color black, which could be evocating a certain form of anguish, is almost nonexistent in this painting. Only the frame of the mirror and windows is black. We wonder if this could mean that Van Gogh was afraid of his future and afraid to face up to reality. This is a possibility. In fact, despite the evidence of his happiness, present in this painting, Van Gogh was not married2 and many clues here let us think that he wished to be. Although the bedroom is very sparsely furnished and only contains essential items (which shows, in addition to the choice of colors, a great simplicity), we notice that many of these objects go together in pairs (two pillows, two chairs, two portraits on the wall, two drawings, and even two doors). Thus, this painting on canvas was perhaps his way of expressing his wish to meet someone and that his bedroom was arranged so as to welcome her. But because it was just him in this bedroom, he certainly felt less lonely by doubling the objects. Van Gogh’s painting consists almost entirely of straight lines. This is reminiscent of a children’s coloring which would have been filled in with color pencils, because the edges of objects are bolder and their filling up seem almost slapdash, neglected. This elaborate post-impressionist design may be compared to such work as Georges Seurat’s A Sunday on La Grande Jatte (book p. 370). But whereas Van Gogh favored paintings composed of multiple thin brush strokes, Seurat preferred the use of the pointillism system, which consisted of â€Å"applying color to the canvas in tiny dots. 3† In this painting of Seurat, the color also focuses on hues. There are numerous colors too, their contrast is intense, and the sun shine, like in the Van Gogh’s bedroom, fills the picture, suggesting happiness and tranquility. Like Van Gogh, Seurat played with repetitive forms (the parasols, people in profile, trees, and boats). People in this piece are rigid. In fact, they do not seem to move, but on the contrary, seem to be strangely paralyzed, paralleling the furniture of Van Gogh’s bedroom. Strangely, Van Gogh’s furniture seems to be even more â€Å"alive† than the people in the Seurat’s painting. The two painters did not have the same approach when they decided which colors they wanted to illuminate their canvases; while Van Gogh was guided by his emotions and instant feelings, Seurat carefully analyzed the colors and â€Å"meticulously calculated values. † But in both pieces, Van Gogh and Seurat express their sense of organization by making objects, forms, motifs and colors coherent. To conclude, the mesmerizing, luminous colors, and the well organized motifs of the depiction of Van Gogh’s bedroom, were not the game of chance. Everything in this painting seems to echo the emotions of Van Gogh, expressing at the same time his happiness in Arles and the great pea ce and tranquility he felt there, but also his desire to find his soul mate, with who he could share his home and thus, reach happiness certainly even more.

Quantitative Analysis of Vitamin C in Food Products Essay

There is growing evidence that Vitamin C serves as a potent antioxidant in vitro. There are many functions that Vitamin C has in the body among which is the capacity to improve the immunity system such that a person is more able to fight off colds and flus. Pre-Lab: List five other functions of Vitamin C in the human body. Vitamin C is another name for ascorbic acid. There is a marked similarity between the structure of glucose and Vitamin C. As a matter of fact, plants and most animals are able to synthesize Vitamin C from glucose. Unfortunately, humans are unable to do this and we must include Vitamin C in our diet or we risk a vitamin deficiency disease. We all recognize citrus fruits as a valuable vitamin C source, but few of us realize that many freshly harvested vegetables contain considerably more of this vitamin than do oranges or lime. Unfortunately, storage and processing destroy most of the Vitamin C in vegetables before they reach the consumer. Consumer cooking methods further decrease the amount of vitamin C in vegetables. Vitamin C is water soluble and thus leaches out while cooking or steaming. One useful analytical method for measuring the Vitamin C content of a vegetable or fruit involves an oxidation-reduction titration of ascorbic acid. In the titration, ascorbic acid is oxidized to form dehydroascorbic acid. You might think it unusual to oxidize the acid rather than titrate it with a base. However, biological samples contain many substances that also act as acids (as was mentioned in Experiment 3) and thus interfere in a titration of ascorbic acid with a base. In contrast, many fewer components of biological materials interfere with the oxidation of ascorbic acid by the oxidizing agent 2, 6-dichloroindophenol (DCP). Thus, an oxidation-reduction titration of ascorbic acid with DCP provides a more selective analysis than would an acid-base titration. Please note the equation for the reaction below: C6H8O6 (colorless) + C12H7O2NCl2(red) –> (pH3) C6H6O6 (Colorless) + C12H9O2NCl2 (colorless) This titration is particularly convenient because DCP also serves as its own indicator. As we add DCP solution to a solution containing Vitamin C, the reaction mixture remains colorless until all of the Vitamin C has been converted to dehydroascorbic acid. The next drop of DCP solution added imparts a red color from excess DCP to the mixture, indicating both the equivalence point and the endpoint of the titration. (Expect solution to go from red to colorless —–then at the endpoint red again). Because DCP solutions have a relatively short shelf life, we usually standardize such solutions immediately prior to using them. We can perform the standardization conveniently by titrating aliquots of an ascorbic acid solution prepared from an accurately-weighed sample of reagent-grade ascorbic acid. The standardization titration reaction is the same as the analysis reaction above. In this experiment, you will begin by standardizing a DCP solution. Then you will determine the vitamin C content of liquid and solid food samples by titration with the standardized DCP solution. Prior to performing the titrations, you will treat the food samples with metaphosphoric acid. Treatment with this acid serves to denature and precipitate proteins that would otherwise interfere with the analysis. Acidification of thesample also serves to stabilize the ascorbic acid, which will otherwise decompose and be undetectable. Acidification to pH less than 4 also minimizes reaction of DCP with other compounds which react with DCP only at pH levels greater than 4.

A Case Study of Arvind Mills

A case study on Arvind Mills Ltd Supply Chain A very distinct feature of Arvind Mills Ltd is the fact that its brands work across multiple channels, price points and customer segments. These are brands that are distinctive and relevant across diverse customer segments. Some of the brands under Arvind Mills are: Wrangler, Excalibur, Flying Machine, Newport, Ruf & Tuf, Arrow, Izod etc and its customers include Levis, Lee, Tommy Hilfiger etc.The supply network finally reaches the customer touch points through over 275 stand alone brand stores across the country and more than 975 counters selling multi brand retail outlets an key accounts across India. Arvind Mills Ltd is one of the largest denim manufacturers in the world and has configured its supply chain based on â€Å"push† system. Under normal operating conditions, Arvind manufactures denim â€Å"sorts† based on monthly forecast to stock at various warehouses.As Arvind Mills â€Å"pushes† its products (sorts) t o ware-houses, actual selling takes place on an ongoing basis with the â€Å"sold sorts† are being replaced subsequently. The â€Å"Push† system operates under the â€Å"make-to-stock† environment. While the system has worked efficiently at Arvind for years it becomes difficult for a company to follow the same where a high demand fluctuation exists. A Push-based supply chain accumulates excessive inventory (â€Å"cycle stock† and â€Å"work-in-process†) by the time it responds to the changing demand.In addition, since long-term forecast plays an important role, it is difficult to match supply with variable demand. â€Å"Push† supply chain also entails larger production batches, incompatible for catering demand of short quantity. Another interesting feature of the supply chain is the intense reach Arvind Mills is targeting. With increasing disposable income available in the rural areas as well, the company is trying to make shirts at affordab le rates available at grocery stores and petrol pumps. It has also started selling shirt bits instead of multi meter long rolls which once dominated the retail shelves.

THE MACHINE AGE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

THE MACHINE AGE - Essay Example He is quoted as saying he would not do it again, that the transplant destroyed his quality of life. A $125,000 dollar settlement was given to his wife in 2003 by AbioCor Corporation based on deceit by hospital patient advocates who had encouraged the procedure while actually working for AbioCor. AbioCor was denied FDA approval to sell the heart to extend life. African Americans represent a large number of medical test subjects, even though they are the minority of the population in the US—and they are even less likely to be able to afford expensive procedures tested on them. Historically, African American women were used as test subjects. Consent forms are required for medical testing, and participants can quit any time. With tests like artificial hearts, however, quitting means dying. AbioCor went a step further and request to be able to test on unconscious subjects that had never given consent. This has been done with PolyHeme artificial blood, but never with a life-threaten ing procedure like an experimental heart transplant. African Americans are 20% less likely to select to participate in â€Å"health proxy† treatments like these, therefore giving the artificial heart without consent would affect African Americans more, making it unjust. Three Big Points (Summary of the Summary, non-essay form, per your request). 1.

The Origin of Valentine's Day Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Origin of Valentine's Day - Essay Example For instance, in the Yester years, Valentine’s Day was a liturgical celebration on the early Christian saints called Valentinus. Saint Valentine was profoundly associated with martyrology as he conducted the weddings of many soldiers (Pfatteicher, 86, 2008). The authors’ sentiments depict a chronological flow of events since the inception of Valentine’s Day to the current prevalent trends. I selected the author; Pfatteicher (2008) based on his extensive research hence depicting reliability. The information source is a book, and the author is a researcher by profession. This paper seeks to discuss the origin of valentine day. The Valentine’s Day is profoundly associated with romantic love emanating from the traditional courtly love. This traditional love flourished in the circles of Geoffrey Chaucer who lived in the High middle ages. Ever since the 15th century, Saint Valentine’s Day has evolved into a lover occasion where pleasantries were exchanged. These gifts have ever been meant to signify the intent of love and include flowers, confectionery, and greeting cards. The 19th century gave rise to hand written greeting cards and heart shaped outlines, a winged cupid figure and a dove. It is eminent that Valentine’s Day dates way back into history and is entrenched in the Roman Empire. From these sentiments, I think the author was truth full trying to relay detailed information. The history of Saint Valentine’s Day is shrouded in mystery. The only known facts are as follows; Saint Valentine’s Day has over the years being a romantic celebration. This day also exhumes the vintages of Christians as well as some roman cultural traditions. However, it is still not clear how this Saint Vale ntine came to be associated with an ancient rite that has survived several centuries. The Catholic Church for instance recognizes three Saint Valentines commonly

Resort Management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Resort Management - Case Study Example The mission of Oceania Club is to provide customers with all-inclusive high-quality services in order ensure customers satisfaction and loyalty. Oceania Club sets out to create a range of high-quality serviced that are distinctive in type, and especially appealing to people who had acquired a taste for good holidays. Oceania Club guarantees the best room, the warmest atmosphere on average price. Oceania Club is aimed to achieve competitive advantage and sustainable competitive creating value for their customers, select markets where they can excel and present a moving target to their competitors by continually improving their position. Three of the most important factors are innovation, quality and inventory reduction. â€Å"Blessed with a rich flora blossoming, its amphitheatric setting, surrounded by pines, olive groves, cypress trees and a golden long sandy beach, makes Oceania the ideal place for a dreamy holiday† (Oceania Home Page 2007). The resort provides lodging and room facilities. The main lodging facilities include: lounge/tv rooms, conference/meeting facilities, business/internet center, outdoor pool, indoor pool, children playground, restaurant Piano, bar, nightclub/disco, fitness center, sauna, beauty salon. Room facilities are â€Å"A/C individual, heating, satellite/pay tv, safe box, direct phone line, terrace, etc. Also, Oceania proposes a wide range of sports and entertainment activities, children and football swimming pools and beaches† (Oceania Home Page 2007). Oceania Club market is very fragmented in terms of supply, with a large number of smaller operators being characteristic. Consolidation is an ongoing process in the sector. A frequent complaint is marketing's preoccupation with short- term thinking, and an almost total lack of 'strategic thinking', or considering the longer-term implications of external and internal influences on the organization (Hayes & Ninmeier 2003). Seasonality is one of the main weaknesses of this business. Economic strains do exist, however, and some of the most sensitive factors relate to seasonal variation in Greece. In order to attract tourist around the world, Oceania Club introduces special summer and winter offers. The price varies from $12,15 in winter to $251 in summer. This strategy helps Oceania Club to avoid empty hotels, carriers and tour operators with idle wheels, and employees jobless. Also, skillful marketing, expensive, but effective, helps Oceania Club overcome some of the problems associated with seasonality (Hayes & Ninmeier 2003). Resort Property A model building is one of the hallmarks of Oceania Club. Oceania Club is "built in a luxurious, contemporary Mediterranean style and inspired by the Greek architectural traditions" (Oceania Club Home Page 2007). Land-use zoning and the spatial separation of accommodation from the buildings increase resort carrying capacity in locations. This model distinguished between the resort which represented culture and the sea which represented nature. What emerged was a transitional zone between culture and nature, a zone of 'ambiguity' - the beach. Oceania Club has 1 building with 5 room wings, 297 rooms, 3 floors and 10 lifts. It proposes the following accommodations: double room, junior suit and deluxe junior suit, suit and deluxe suit (Introduction to

The diy orchestra of the future Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The diy orchestra of the future - Coursework Example The video begins by giving a demo of the code of the Chuck. Wang explains how to make the sign wave oscillator called ‘ge’. He chooses to take the frequency of 440Hz at a time intervals of 2 seconds. He opts to double the frequency thereby changing the tone of the music. He decides to continue with changing the frequencies until his computer integrates. At this point, he reaches at a point known as economical computer music, and he suggest that it is like the sounds made when the main frames are really thinking hard. Additionally, he talks about instruments being created by computer software. He gives an example with a hemisphere that has six holes on it, which is used to produce the laptop orchestra. He uses twilight to prototype instruments by pulling a sound out of the ground, and it really worked leaving the class amazed with laughter echoing the hall. He produces many instruments in the laptop orchestra. He also explains how the compliment follows the melody demonstrating with a phone like

Leadership & Innovation in public services Essay

Leadership & Innovation in public services - Essay Example In fact, becoming a leader of a state is not only confined with managing the affairs within the state territory, but requires cooperation and collaboration with the leaders of other nations in order to maintain peace and security. Very few leaders can be classified as selfless and made sacrifices for the people. Few individuals assume the role of the leader with no other motivation but to serve the people. True leaders recognize that the power of a leader comes from the people who can take it back. Leadership Theories The general classifications of leadership theories are the Great Man Theories, Trait Theories, Behaviorist Theories, Situational Leadership, Contingency Theory, Transactional Theory, Transformational Theory (Bolden, Gosling, & Marturano, 2003), and Servant Leadership (The Robert K. Greenleaf, 2005). Each group of theories has been developed by individuals that contribute to the enhancement of a particular theory. According to Bolden et al. (2003), the schools of thought developed under the earlier models focus more on the personal characters and behaviors of the leader. Later schools take into consideration the participation of the followers in the development of the leader (Bolden et al., 2003). The Great Man theories proposed that leaders possess some exceptional innate qualities that destined them to lead. While the Trait Theories provide a list of traits and qualities that a leader should have, the Behaviorist Theories focus on the set of behaviors of a leader. Situational Leadership provides that leadership is seen according to the situation where the leader exists and includes the tasks and goals to be accomplished, as well as the willingness of the person to attain them. Contingency Theory provides the predictive variables that would make the leadership style appropriate on certain circumstances. Transactional Theory expounds on the relationship of the leader and the governed, the benefits they derive from each other, and the reward and ben efits given by the leader in exchange for the loyalty of followers. Transformational Theory focuses on the role of the leader in envisioning the transformation of the organization (Bolden et al., 2003). Servant leadership espouses that a leader is a servant to the people, with no other motivation except to serve the people (The Robert K. Greenleaf, 2005). Participative leadership refers to the involvement of other persons in decision-making and implementation of the same (Culture and Leadership, 2006). Participative leadership, also referred to democratic leadership (Spillane, 2005; Ogbonna & Harris, 2000), is a more successful kind of leadership (Ogbonna & Harris, 2000). Distributed leadership, a recent model, is the antithesis of the â€Å"heroics of leadership† wherein the leader is seen as the sole actor in leading the organization (Spillane, 2005, p. 143). Issues in Public Leadership Many studies were conducted on private organizations but they are likewise applicable in the public sector. Leadership in the public sector is critical in the current generation amidst the complex problems and issues confronting the governments on all fronts. Leadership issues entail survival of the followers, poverty or death. Leading a group also requires the application of strategic approaches to facilitate

EFFECTS OF MEDIA ON SMOKING Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

EFFECTS OF MEDIA ON SMOKING - Essay Example Usage of tobacco in youth oriented films increased in the 1990’s and it is very common these days mainly in films which are famous with teenagers. However, is it totally a wrong thing to do to attract teenagers. The impact of smoking on the teenagers, shown in movies is mostly negative. The Office of National Drug Control Policy carried out a study in 1999 for 200 famous movies of 1996 & 1999 and found that more than 85% had usage of smoking in them. Dartmouth Medical School also carried out a study which stated that the percentage fluctuated amid 87 % to 91 % in the 25 super hit movies since 1995.1 As revealed that observed public standards and the main predictors for the usage of drugs and alcohol, it is mainly distressing that 74 % of the leading artists in the super hit movies in the year 1997 to 1998 used to smoke. Advertisements shown by the cigarette companies are appealing for teenagers. Promotions and publicity of tobacco usage by commercials and posters increases the likelihood of teenagers start smoking. Marketing is the use of the media to create clear connections or images of the products, advertisement basically is the mixture of activities designed to increase trade. There is indeed no consideration of the effect of tobacco marketing on citizens tasking up tobacco.2 Advertisers use various methods to create appeal which is socially unethical in my eye. Advertisements shown by tobacco companies encourage smoking which is wrong. Conversely, studies related to the non smoking people and their introduction to cigarette marketing discloses that nonsmoking teenagers who were aware of or receptive to cigarette advertisements had the very potential to turn into smokers later on. It has been revealed by the recent researches that cigarette manufacturing organizations are still endorsing ads that indeed have a great impact on the teenagers in comparison to ads relate to anti-smoking. People who smoke are shown as independent individuals who can take their decisions themselves. Federal Trade Commission stated that cigarette manufacturing organizations spend approximately $1.06 billion for the advertisement and promotion of their products. A big portion of this expenditure is spent at retail store level mainly aiming the youth. Teenagers who are aware of the ads associated to smoking be likely to connect smoking with recognition, relaxation and fame and such connections are powerful in contrast with any of the suspected risks and dangers gathered from anti-smoking advertisements. Tobacco manufacturing organizations mainly aim their product in a designed way making a character who smokes enormously popular and composed through the company’s campaigns.3 Cigarette ads attract the teenagers more than people who are above 30 years of age. Teenagers mainly fall upon ads of cigarettes in commercials, magazines, posters, artists smoking in movies and also by means of advertising events in restaurants and bars which make them the easy targets of the cigarette manufacturing companies. Studies have pointed out that cigarette ads attract the young adults and teenagers more as compared to persons above 30 years and peer-review studies reveal that tobacco ads affect the teenagers the most. The impact of anti-smoking and quit smoking ads has still been very less on the

Engineering management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Engineering management - Essay Example Dyson adds that failure is part of making progress because people do not learn from success. When he started from humble idea, it got more interesting and audacious because he had an opportunity to experiment what can work and what cannot work. This can also be taken to mean that he is a very patient mogul, a trait that is very essential in entrepreneurship and innovation. Dyson is also a risk taker, and that is the reason he is so successful in innovation. He explains that innovation is about people trying to improve the way things work, but warns that big corporations are under competition from small innovative enterprises because they are not ready to undertake immense risk. His excellence in innovative is also evident when he explains that there is a lot of competition in terms of ideas but the ones who enjoy the fruits of their innovation are the ones who come up with the best ideas. Question 2 His management style is democratic or laissez-faire. This approach means that he has given his employees a freedom to contribute their ideas and try to implement them if they are found to be useful. This style is very effective in allowing the subordinates to develop their talents and make best use of them. As such, his employees are given a lot of opportunity to work without close supervision, which is very important in such an industry, which depends a lot on innovation. He has made a lot of efforts not to act as an owner who is isolated from his work force. He says that he spent a lot of time interacting with innovative people rather than being in his glass office. He made sure that even the people who were not engineers were doing things that were creative, something that went a long way in fostering innovation in this organization. H also spend time motivating his workers, for example by encouraging and praising them so they can continue adopting the difficult route instead of just doing what is straight forward. For this management style to work in its optimum , he ensures that team members are fully inspired to work to the best interest of the company. Question 3 Organizational structure is the manner in which organizations are set up, in order to achieve their goals. There are three major types of organizational structures, including matrix, divisional and functional. Functional structure Functional structure is organized according to the purpose of each section of the organization. For example, the organization may have different departments such as sales department, marketing department, and production department. This structure mostly suits small businesses in which case each department can rely on the skills and experience of its staff. However, the fact that different departments works as distinct bodies creates a communication barrier along their boundaries. Divisional Structure Divisional structure is common in companies that operate over a wide geographical area or that the companies that have smaller entities operating under th e umbrella group, typically dealing with different market areas or types of products. For example, an engineering company can be organized divisionally, with divisions such as compressor division, engine division, parts division, as well as different divisions to serve different geographical regions. Although communication under this structure is difficult because employees are working in separate divisions, it is generally effective because it allows specific and rapid meeting of needs. Maintenance of different divisio

Federal emergency management agency (FEMA) Term Paper

Federal emergency management agency (FEMA) - Term Paper Example The FEMA also secures state and local governments with the resources and the expertise in specific areas where help is needed (FEMA, 2012a). They also provide funds for rebuilding; and release funds for infrastructure relief by allowing affected individuals to secure low interest loans. This agency also secures funds for the training of emergency response personnel within the US and other territories (FEMA, 2012a). The FEMA’s mission is to support citizens and â€Å"first responders to ensure that as a nation we work together to build, sustain, and improve our capability to prepare for, protect against, respond to, recover from and mitigate all hazards† (FEMA, 2012b). The goals of the FEMA include the preparation of communities for emergencies. In effect, it secures resources to improve the capacity of federal, state, and local government agencies in order to secure best practice and secure grants for local communities (Malcolm, 2012). Another goal of the FEMA is to mit igate the damage caused by disasters. These mitigation goals come about before and after disasters occur; this is when risk management is carried out before disasters and grants are offered for affected individuals in order to mitigate the impact of such disasters (Malcolm, 2012). Another goal is to protect communities from external threats and more importantly to respond to disasters and emergencies. Supporting recovery in communities impacted by disaster is also a significant goal for the FEMA (Malcolm, 2012). The objectives of this organization include the securing the participation of agency employees for the renewal process; emphasizing mitigation as a means of reducing the risks to people, property and communities of disasters; securing a culture of assistance among citizens by ensuring national emergency management partnerships; establishing an all-hazards resource in emergency management; maintaining close relationships with federal agencies in most areas of emergency manage ment; establishing flexibility in the state and local emergency management programs; securing a quick and effective administration in assistance claims; and establishing means by which the efficacy of the FEMA programs can be assessed (FEMA, 2012c). The structure of the FEMA leadership is primarily lodged with the President of the United States from whom main orders for the mobilization of the organization resides (FEMA, 2012d). The FEMA is headed by an administrator, assisted by a deputy administrator and the chief of staff. Staff members would include the directors for the following offices: Executive Secretariat, and the Office of the National Advisory Council. The Chief Counsel would also form part of the administrative staff, including the senior advisor to the Secretary for Emergency Management and the Deputy Administrator of the office for Protection and National Preparedness (FEMA, 2012d). Under the Protection and National Preparedness office are the following assistant dire ctors in specific areas: national preparedness, grant programs, national continuity programs, and the Office of National Capital Region Coordination. The Administrator for the US Fire Administration would also form an office under the FEMA administration (FEMA, 2012d). An associate administrator for t

India and women Essay Example for Free

India and women Essay INDIA and WOMEN Women empowerment is a moot subject. At earlier times, women got unprejudiced status with men. But the post-Vedic time was a difficult period when many were treated as slaves, a commodity earned by the man, a mode of produce kids. From the early twentieth century (national movement) their statuses have been slowly and gradually undergone changes. In this regard, we may mention the name of the English people. After then, independence of India, the constitutional makers and national leaders strongly emphasized on equal social position of women with men. Today, we have seen the women occupying the respectable positions in all walks of the sphere. Yet, they are not absolutely free from discrimination and harassment of the society. A few number of women have been able to establish their potentialities. Therefore, each and every one should be careful to promote the status of women. Women constitute approximately 50% of the world’s population, but India has shown disproportionate sex ratio whereby female’s population has been comparatively less than that of males. As far as their social status is concerned, they are not treated as equal to men in all the places. In the Western societies, the women have got equal right and status with men in all walks of life. But gender disabilities and discriminations are found in India even today. The paradoxical situation is such that, she is sometimes portrayed as a Goddess and at other times merely as slave. It is now that the women in India enjoy a solitary status of equality with the men as per constitutional and legal provision. But the Indian women have come a long way to achieve the present positions. First, gender inequality in India can be traced back to the historic days of the sacred Sanskrit poem, Mahabharata, when Draupadi was put on the dice by her husband as a commodity. History is a witness that women were made to dance both in private and public places to please the men. Secondly, in Indian society, a female was always dependent on male members of the family until a few years ago. Thirdly, a female was not allowed to speak in a loud voice in the presence of elder members of her in-laws or move around without covering her head and in some cases, the face in the presence of other elder or male members of the family. In the family, every faults had gone to her and responsible. Fourth, as a widow her dependence on the male members of the family increased but that was better than performing ‘sati’ where the widow  was burned alive during the cremation of her dead husband. In many social activities, she was not permitted to meet with other members of the family. A woman whether a widow or not had very little share in political, social and economic life of the society and had to vote for the party the family supports, even if she had her views against it. The early twenty century was rise of the National Movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi who was in favor of removing all the chains tied to a woman. At the same time, Raja Ram Mohan Rai, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and various other social reformers laid stress on women’s education, prevention of child marriage, withdrawals of evil practice of sati, removal of polygamy etc. The National Movement and various reform moveme nts paved the way for their liberations from the social evils and religious taboos. After independence of India, the constitution makers and the national leaders recognized the equal social position of women with men. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 has determined the age for marriage, provided for monogamy and guardianship of the mother and permitted the dissolution of marriage under specific circumstances. Under the Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956, an unmarried women, widow or divorce of sound mind can also take child in adoption. Similarly, the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 says that any person who gives, takes, or abets the giving or taking of dowry shall be punished with imprisonment, or fine or with both. The Constitution of India guarantees equality of sexes and in fact grants special favors to women. These can be found in three articles of the constitution. Article 14 says that the government shall not deny to any person equality before law or equal protection of the law. Article 15 declares that government shall not discriminate against any citizen on the ground of sex. Article 15 (3) makes a special provision enabling the state to make affirmative discriminations in favor of women . Article 42 directs the state to make provision for ensuring just and human conditions of work and maternity relief. Above all, the constitution regards a fundamental duty on every citizen through Articles 15 (A), (E) to renounce the practices derogatory to the dignity of women. The concept of empowerment flows from the power. It is vesting where it does not exist or exist inadequately. Empowerment of women would mean equipping women to be economically independent, self-reliant, have positive esteem to enable them to face any difficult situation and they should be able to participate in development  activities. The empowered women should be able to participate in the process of decision making. The government of India has ratified various international conventions and human rights instruments committing to secure equal rights to women. These are CEDAW (1993), the Mexico Plan of Action (1975), the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies (!985), the Beijing Declaration as well as the platform for Action (1995) and other such instruments. The year of 2001 was observed as the year of women’s empowerment. During the year, a landmark document has been adopted, ‘ the National Policy for the empowerment of women.’ For the beneficiaries of the women, the government has been adopted different schemes and programs i.e. the National Credit Fund for Women (1993) , Food and Nutrition Board (FNB), Information and Mass Education (IMF) etc. But is all this actually working is what everyone wants to know. Are women actually empowered ? Or is all this only in papers and even in the 21st century women fear leaving their houses alone? Do they fear wearing clothes they want to wear ? Well I feel that the answer to this is a big YES. In the 21st century, where India is an emerging super power the women are not confident that they will return home safely. But why is it so? Some say that because ‘boys are boys’ and they can do whatever they want to or maybe because the kind of clothes a woman wears instigates men to look at her with those greedy eyes and lay their dirty hands on her? Well NO ! Did that women in a burqa who was raped while going back home in her own car provoke anybody? Or the 5 year old girl who was studying in school provoke her teacher? But boys will be boys who make mistakes. For once forget about the boys, they will defend themselves but when the head of the Mahila Vibhaag (women’s association) says that the mistake lies in the girls, don’t you believe it? I don’t. I think it is time for every girl to take a stand for herself and for every other girl in this world because it is not just India where women are not treated equally, a study conducted in the US in 2012 says that about 14% of women who were fired from their jobs was because the boss wanted something more than a normal boss and employ relationship. Also a study conducted in London in 1998 says that about 33% of divorces happen because the man is not willing to let the wife go out for a job or to pick up the kids because she might just have an affair. It’s also time for every parent stop telling their daughters to wear longer dresses and tell their sons to respect girls  because nobody should be judged by the way they dress. It is said that if a man is educated he will earn bread for the entire family but if a woman is educated then she will make sure that the entire family is educated. To sum up, women empowerment cannot be possible unless women come with and help to self-empower themselves. There is a need to formulate reducing feminized poverty, promoting education of women, and prevention and elimination of violence against women.

Relationship between Business Strategy and IT Strategy

Relationship between Business Strategy and IT Strategy BUSINESS-IT ALIGNMENT (BITA) The relationship between Business strategy and IT strategy and the influence of organisation culture on this strategic alignment in Saudi firms will form the basis of the research in this research. As such, the literature reviewed here will survey major research and practice in the business-IT strategic alignment domain for the purpose of deriving a research framework, or model, of business-IT strategic alignment that will unite the key principles contained within the literature. The intention is to develop a model simple enough for application that will provide a practical tool both for management and IT practitioners. 2.1 BITA A CHRONLOGICAL HISTORY Study on the strategic alignment concept will soon be reaching a quarter of a decades worth of knowledge. Henderson Sifonis (1988) began studying this notion during the late 80s when alignment emerged from a focus on strategic business planning and long-range IT planning where IT plans were created in support of corporate strategies Chan Reich (2007, p. 298). Nevertheless, strategic alignment has retained its interest and value in the business and IT communities and is still a popular topic today for organisations; perhaps even more so as technological advancement continues to dominate the exchange of information. Not surprisingly, its evolution has followed closely the developmental progress of IT itself which began with the operational era continuing through the re-engineering viewpoint and the new economy as figure 2.1 illustrates: The initial phase, the operational era, was concerned primarily with the operations that an organisation performed and focused on setting up mainframes, managing networks of PCs, and backing up organisational data. IT provided the nuts and bolts to facilitate automation of back-office functions through the development of software and had only a supportive role. Strategic alignment was thus viewed merely as a supporting act for every-day operations with its software applications. The second phase, re-engineering, arose from the increasing trend toward dependency on the automation of business processes by IT which not only offered back-office functions support but the promise of total automation within an organization as a whole through IT software applications. At this stage, IT was still viewed only as a supportive tool with no representation in the business end of an organisation. For example, business managers expressed their system needs which the IT department embraced and went on to develop and deploy a new software application in isolation. These early strategic alignment projects were not always successful. It was discovered that the development of software (with embedded processes) for automation of a business function was no guarantee of improvement over its earlier manual operation, indeed it could end up being more time-consuming and therefore less efficient as operators were not necessarily au fait with the application. There was not a full unde rstanding of what IT could do and how it could enhance a companys position beyond speeding up communications and thereby creating more ‘time for production or interfacing. A ‘Them and Us atmosphere prevailed with the ‘techies in a separate world to the mangers or drivers of the business, neither fully understanding the others needs [elements that are also considered further in the organisation culture aspect of this research and dealt with in the next chapter]. In the 1990s, Baets study of European banks (Baets, 1996) supported the findings of Vitale and colleagues ten years earlier (Vitale et al., 1986) that knowledge of IT had to be on a par with expert business knowledge for the two to create any comprehension and thereby effective application of strategic alignment in organisations. The third phase, new economy, saw IT commanding greater importance and status as organisations began to emerge that were embracing e-commerce. The demands of the new e-business projects required involvement of IT representatives in their management and strategic planning. The implementation of Internet technologies to augment business processes for productivity or profitability improvements brought the role of IT into the spotlight, according it recognition and strategic responsibility. Along with the newly elevated status of the old IT department there was a greater familiarity with technology and its capabilities and the prejudice that had previously scorned the ‘nerds dissipated somewhat as managers and personnel became more knowledgeable and the IT personnel more essential beyond a lab coat and a screwdriver [cf: artifacts causing division, Schein (1992) and Trompenaars (1997) in chapter 3]. Despite the current global economic crisis and the demise of the new economy IT con tinues to assume new responsibilities and organisations have even more need for strategic alignment projects. An IT department in 2010 must manage relations with partners and bear business responsibilities concerned with the development and customisation of software that will improve how a business functions; practice effective project management to control costs and maximise efficiency and ensure that the introduction of any new hardware or software support operations and infrastructure, â€Å" maintaining the crucial corporate data that helps managers throughout the enterprise to make intelligent and informed decisions Hoque (2002, p. 31). Kearns Lederer, (2003) and Seggie et al. (2006) agree that strategic alignment is a means to gain competitive advantage and Sabherwal Chan (2001), Wagner et al. (2005) and Zhou et al. (2008) further add that it improves organisational performance. 2.2 DEFINING BITA Determining a conclusive definition for alignment is as challenging as its function and application. There are many perspectives and multiple definitions including in chronological order: strategic alignment (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1993); harmony (Luftman, 1996); fit (Porter, 1996); bridge (Ciborra, 1997); integration (Weill and Broadbend, 1988); fusion (Smaczny, 2001); IS alignment (Chan et al., 2006; Benbya and McKelvey, 2006) business-IT alignment (Luftman, 2007); and IT alignment (Chan, 2007). It is understandable that there is such diversity as definitions depend on our understanding of language. The semantics involved are precarious because the new technologies are often described in technical terms and applying simplistic synonyms to explain the intention of alignment in the context of business IT in terminology that is understood without associated jargon is very difficult. Overall, the definitions offered, though they have nuances of difference between them, do relate to the improvement of organisational capability through technology. Broadbent and Weills (1993) early definition, purports that it is the degree to which information strategies support, stimulate and/or enable any business strategies. A later definition offered by Reich and Benbasat (1996) asserts much the same but frames it in terms of the missions of the IT and business objectives and plans on both sides. Luftman (2000) was the first to introduce the element of evolution into the definition and argued that it required strength [as the key element] from leadership, senior management and working relationships, combined with a complete understanding of the business and technical environments, fitting prioritisation, mutual trust, and of course, effective communication. Hirschheim and Sabherwals (2001) definition included the idea of a reciprocal arrangement as fundamental to its meaning and stated that alignment was the achieved between strategy and supporting structures that allowed both IS (information systems) and business to function and communica te responsively each way to one another. Most accepted definitions do highlight the alignment dichotomy described by Kearns and Lederer, (2000), where the argument is that the IS plan ought to align with the business plan (ISP-BP) and vice versa (BP-ISP) the business plan ought to align with the IS plan. Each perspective serves to increase the understanding of IT at organisational level and assist the prioritisation of IT projects. Reich and Benbasat (1996) were protagonists of the ISP-BP model, which they declared signified, IS managements comprehension of the business strategy. Whereas Bensaou and Earl (1998) contrarily preferred the BP-ISP alignment model as they believed it assumed a greater understanding on the part of the business comprehension of the IT aspects and thus the plan and the resources would ally more effectively together as a result of this knowledge, understanding and commitment. These elements are believed to be enablers of alignment (Luftman et al., 1999). In the definitions offered some view alignment as a specific happening or event and others regard it is an ongoing process. Duffy (2001) saw BITA as a process of achieving competitive advantage through a developed and sustained business and IT symbiosis. Maes et al. (2000) claimed BITA to be a continuous and continual process that involved management and design sub-processes with conscious and coherent interrelation of all elements and mechanisms within the business/IT relationship offering contribution to the ongoing performance of the organisation. Moodys (2003) definition saw BITA as a form of comprehensive resources management (people/ technology/ outside resources) that provides a set of IT services and capabilities that are in line with the business needs and priorities. And Senn (2003) was assured that each action executed by IT individuals was to focus on the creation and delivery of shareholder/stakeholder value through supporting business operations and/or achieving business goals. 2.3 BITA PERSPECTIVES AND DIMENSIONS With the diversity of definitions offered to explain the meaning of the strategic alignment concept, as outlined in the previous section, there is a need to further explore the differences to discover why there is such variety. Part of the explanation may be that as the concept has evolved it has been closely linked to the evolution of technological capabilities. Attitudes have changed as organisations have adopted new technologies and personnel have become more familiar with their potential and their operation. These dynamics and the evolution of strategic alignment are reflected in the number of conceptualisations and their definitions will be analysed in the context of the differing perspectives afforded to them. BITA with regard to its perception as a strategy, an event, a continuous process, a performance indicator, an assessment tool, a social influence and as an operation will be briefly outlined below to expand on the definitions in the literature from their different dimensi ons. 2.3.1 BITA AS A STRATEGY It has been a tradition for literature to refer to Business-IT alignment as ‘strategic alignment. Considering it in these terms frames it as an intellectual notion rather than something more concrete or practical and as such it can be high-jacked to represent whatever strategy suits the organisation that is considering alignment. There is no harm in referencing alignment in this manner for it allows debate and therefore change, essential for evolution and adopting a ‘strategy suitable to the structure, culture and level of alignment required. By referring to it in this way however, the literature suggests that strategic alignment is dependent on the fit between IT strategy and business strategy, and on how the IS plans are established to support such a fit (Teo and King, 1997). Many authors in the strategic alignment field approach alignment purely at the strategic level, e.g. Baets (1992), Broadbent and Weill (1993), Chan et al. (1997), and Luftman (2003). At the core of their conceptualisations is the notion that business strategy itself must first be analysed and only thereafter be used to determine a complementary IT strategy. In this scenario the business strategy is paramount and the IT strategy contribution secondary, it is a means to an end rather than a means in its own right. However, despite the alignment between business strategy and IT strategy where emphasis is laid on defining IS strategy plans (Benbya and Mckelvey, 2006) strategic alignment continues to be problematical in many organisations. Thus, reaching an agreed definition that details IS strategic plans is important for strategic alignment; however, is it not enough on its own for the achievement of such alignment (van der Zee and de Jong, 1999). 2.3.2 STRUCTURAL TOPOLOGY AFFECTING BITA The literature often takes for granted the strategic element of the concept and delves further into its implications for organisations, concentrating on the behaviour and nature of BITA what it does when you introduce it [and also is a strong feature of the organisational culture types discussed in the following chapter]. This depends largely on what type of a structure into which it is introduced. A formal structure, an informal structure or a hybrid structure, each having its own merits and each being capable of effective function when the circumstances and environment are conducive to the choice made (Brown and Magill, 1994). Against their three identified structures, Earl (1989) identified five potentially suitable structures: centralized, business unit, business venture, decentralised, and federal. Tavakolian (1989) found a direct correlation between competitive and conservative strategies within an environment and the corresponding decentralised or centralised IT structures ev ident in an organisation and this finding is supported to some extent by Bergeron et al. (2001) with the caveat that it is not solely the complexity of structure that impacts performance but that other factors are influential too. Chans (2001) view is that informal structure, â€Å"†¦relationship-based structures that transcend the formal division of labour and coordination of tasks†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Chan, 2001, p67) can be just as effective as formal structure with the human element rather than intellectualised models and processes driving alignment, often with more impact and success than a formal arrangement. Structure, therefore can add a new dimension to the perspective of alignment as it places it in a setting that will impose its own constraints on the practice and execution of alignment exercises and ideals. 2.3.3 BITA AS AN END IN ITSELF For some authors it alignment doesnt seem to ‘do anything rather it is a business unit that lacks the dynamics others see in it. The implication is that it is something that is ‘brought in like an object concrete and physical and recognised by its static end state where some sort of equilibrium is achieved between the IT and business sides in an organisation. In the previous section, some of the definitions only present strategic alignment as an outcome achieved through the employment and adoption of different models, techniques and processes (Ortiz, 2003). Broadbent and Weill (1993), Chan et al. (1997), Luftman (2003) and Reich and Benbasat (1996), also see strategic alignment as something to be arrived at, a destination that is terminated when an optimal situation has been achieved. This may be a misunderstanding of the full meaning as the attitude that having strategic alignment the business married with the technology required for effective fulfillment of objectives cannot stand alone and it would be naà ¯ve to believe that BITA was a panacea for all business problems so perhaps the authors see it as an optimal achievement when all the other factors, or perspectives, also come into play to make BITA a worthwhile ‘thing in itself. 2.3.4 BITA AS A CONTINUING PROCESS If a business is static it will stagnate and if a business wishes to grow, like IT, it must always continue to evolve through a naturally occurring dynamics that are integral to the implementation of policies such as strategic alignment. Baets (1996), Luftman et al. (1999), and Rondinelli (2001) agree that these dynamics require constant monitoring and appropriate adjustment. Therefore, strategic alignment is not something attainable but something constantly in development, as it is variously described by Henderson and Venkatraman (1993), Baets 1996, Maes et al. (2000), Duffy (2001), Moody (2003), and Senn (2004). â€Å"An issue that has remained relatively unchallenged and unquestioned is how to align IT that is relatively fixed once implemented in an organization, with a business strategy and associated information requirements that are constantly in need of adjustment Galliers (2007, p. 228). Even within this perspective there are two schools of thought; the classical school of thought with emphasis on contingency adaptations and the ‘processual approach (Whittington, 1993) that emphasises the importance of addressing internal and power issues, particularly how cultural elements influence the formal elements of rationality and the decision process in strategic alignment and rejects IT as merely an adaptation but gives it greater weight as a resource. Furthermore, practitioners are being advised to adopt a view of strategic alignment as a continual process. In Pearlmans (2004) article advice to CIOs, in summary, is that they should communicate, demonstrate, lead, collaborate, govern and build if they wish to achieve alignment. 2.3.5 BITA FOR PERFORMANCE INDICATION It is the consideration of several authors that strategic alignment is not only a process but also a tool whereby they can reflect on the business value that organisations might possess, or not. In studies analysed the relationship between strategic alignment and competitive advantage or organisational performance were tracked, (Venkatraman, 1989; Sabherwal and Chan, 2001; Kearns and Lederer, 2003; Wagner, 2005; Seggie et al., 2006; Zhou, 2008). Tallon and Kraemer (2003) were responsible for the additional concept of business value being included as an element to the performance indication point of view of strategic alignment and analyse business value by relating it to organisational IT goals and measuring the IT return of investment from a strategic alignment viewpoint. 2.3.6 ASSESSMENT USING BITA In response to the question: `how do organisations know how good their strategic alignment is? different authors have developed Maturity Models (MMs) (de Koning and der Mark, 2002; Duffy, 2001; Luftman, 2003; van der Raadt et al., 2005). MMs describe the development of a specific domain over time. This perspective is in itself a more mature outlook than other perspectives as it has to consider many of the dynamics before being able to construct an effective strategic alignment. Because of the in-built review and evaluation required for this perspective it has to look at all aspects that the alignment may affect. Researchwork and systems are subject to assessment and revision through these maturity models and their monitoring. On the basis of the assessments of those MMs, organisations can fine tune and calibrate their strategic alignment: Identify any alignment-related aspects/processes improvements required to obtain a higher level of strategic alignment maturity. Initiate any change processes to ensure that the identified improvements eventuate. In much the same way, acceptance of the cyclical nature of strategic alignment as posited by Burns (1996) ‘lead-lag model implies assessment in response to intermittent predictable and unpredictable changes as does the ‘punctuated equilibrium model of Sabherwal et al. (2001) where interruptions to stability demand a fresh look at the long term plan and goals of strategic alignment. 2.3.7 BITA AS A SOCIAL INFLUENCE If an organisation intends to work toward achieving strategic alignment it will necessitate communication that will involve negotiation, collaboration and mutual understanding elements not always present a specific organisational structure or culture. This communication can blur the boundaries of traditional or conventional approaches and therefore becomes a driving force behind social attitudes and perceptions. Chan (2002) and Huang and Hu (2007) uphold this view that maintaining effective communication in an organisation will impact on corporate strategic alignment culture. Concord must be developed for effective channels of communication, transparency in the exchange of knowledge and sharing of learning (Hoque, 2002; Daneva and Hu, 2007), and the use of informal communication is just as important a factor for adjustment and control (Mintzberg, 1993; Chan, 2002; vander Raadt et al., 2005), to generate an atmosphere of trust and an effective response to business needs from an IT pe rspective. Reich and Benbasats (2000) study further confirms that strategic alignment is more likely to succeed when business and IT executives have an [importantly] expressed and [understood] shared common vision of ITs contribution. 2.3.8 BITA AND OPERATIONS Strategic alignment [when it is all-encompassing and embraced by all as part of an organisational culture] necessarily involves organisational issues of communication, structure and, particularly, coordination processes that are operational to the business in specifically performed actions (Wieringa, 2008). Operational strategic alignment consists of aligning the operational activities of IT and business people with each other so that optimal IT support for business requirements is achieved. In this context, Peak and Guynes (2003) put the onus of success on the IT side of the equation, though it does imply some reciprocity in the initial communication of ‘quality requirements and they state that strategic alignment will only be attained when an organisations IT staff can deliver quality information and quality IT products and services to the business side. 2.4 BITA MODELS 2.4.1 MIT90S FRAMEWORK (1991) During the 1980s, research conducted at the world renowned MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) initiated interest in the academic community to the potential of the strategic power of IT. In the attempt to exploit the possibilities revealed in the model from the research it was suggested that radical innovation involving IT investment could carry substantial reward if key elements of strategy, structure, technology, management processes and individuals and their roles were kept in alignment (Morton, 1991). Organisation can be visualised as a set of five forces in dynamic equilibrium subject to external influences from the technological environment and the socio-economic environment. In this view, a core task of general management is to ensure that all five ‘forces (represented by the boxes), can flow without restriction or impediment in order to achieve the organisations goals and objectives. With management at the centre of the model its role is central too. Though some areas might not necessarily be in direct contact with each other they are connected via the management process which plays the principal role and ensures organisational response to shifts in demands from the external variables. 2.4.2 THE HENDERSON AND VENKATRAMAN STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT MODEL (1993) Henderson Venkatramans (1993) strategic model (Figure 2.3) is a widely used four-part illustration favoured by many researchers and organisations for the assessment of the level of alignment in a company. Each of the four parts [quarters] contain three distinct and individuals elements which, when collectively analysed, can be used to define each quarter operationally. These twelve elements- further expanded in Table 1 are used to establish the level and type of alignment within a corporation (Henderson Venkatraman, 1993; Papp, 1995). Table 1 Components of the Strategic Alignment Model Within the model it can be seen how external influences may affect change on either processes [lower sectors] or strategies [upper sectors]. A vertical link couples the upper and lowers sectors and shows the relationship between strategic fit to accommodate strategy with infrastructure. A horizontal link for functional integration shows how IT strategies must adapt as business strategies change, and displays the dependence and required response of each sector upon anothers adaptations particularly in relation to skills and operation. Giving focus to three of the four quarters of the model at a given time can permit a simultaneous address to both strategic fit and functional integration (Papp, 1995; Luftman et al., 1999). The SAM (Strategic Alignment Model) model has proven empirical authenticity and has provided valid conceptual and practical value (Goedvolk et al,. 1997; Avison et al., 2004). Nevertheless, it is subject to confines, eg, the applicability of the SAM model may vary depending on the IT-intensity of an industry and the assumptions expounded might not be relevant to the circumstances (Burn and Szeto, 2000). As mentioned, the model does have recognition and a number of scholars have further elaborated on it (e.g., Luftman et al., 1993). Goedvolk et al.s (1997) extension of the SAM model gave greater focus to technical and architectural attributes. Avison et al.s (2004) addition to the SAM model was able to provide practitioners and academics with further practical ways to attain alignment in their advocacy of examining projects retrospectively to determine alignment. This form of alignment monitoring, can allow pre-emption in a change in strategy and implementation of a new alignment perspective by re-allocation of project resources. The SAM model inspired Maes et al. (2000) to produce a framework that incorporates even more layers pertinent to function and strategy where information providers are separated from the systems providing information in a new information domain representing knowledge, [and exchange of information through] communication and coordination. Their third dimension addresses specific sub-architecture areas. 2.4.3 IS CAPABILITY AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE MODEL (2004) Peppard and Wards model (2004) shows IS capability at the core of everything, inherently affecting competencies and emanating an influence on all areas that interrelate [business strategy/business operations/IT operations and services/IS/IT strategy] and impact upon the organisational performance. Such focus on the importance of this core element demonstrates the value IS capabilities can create and is therefore an organisation-wide responsibility that cannot be delegated to the IS function alone (Peppard et al., 2000). Peppard and Ward (2004) later asserted that though an organisation might envisage an IT based innovative strategy, it will be their IS capabilities that permit such a vision to come to fruition. 2.4.4 CO-EVOLUTIONARY IS ALIGNMENT (2006) By 2006 the model suggested by Benbya and McKelvey (2006) through its graphic presentation appears a more fluid representation suggesting, even visually, that there is more of a flow between relationships in alignment. It still addresses the need to analyse relationships between business and IT (horizontal IS alignment) but introduces a need to merge the views at different levels [strategic/operational/individual] of analysis (vertical IS alignment) through shared understanding and communication. The co-evolutionary IS alignment perspective conveys the necessity for mutual adaptation within a dynamic interplay of co-evolving elements. Co-evolution does not necessarily seek harmony between the elements but a respect for their position and the innovation that may result from the circumstances and environments in which they function. 2.5 ASSESSMENT APPROACHES OF BITA In this section MMs (maturity models) are referred to that have been developed for the assessment of BITA. 2.5.1 DUFFYS MM (2001) Duffys (2001) MM is founded on the principle that a dependable, mutually compatible partnership between IT and business executives is elementary in order to achieve a worthwhile BITA. Without this premise there cannot be a successful desired outcome. Accepting that there is a level of interdependence between IT and business objectives, any schism or division between IT and non-IT areas would sabotage any efforts to establish alignment. This model is arranged about a series of key success drivers (the domains: human resources organisation and management/innovation and renewal strategy/IT/business architecture/IT/business partnership/operational excellence/ROI strategy management) which are operationalised in KPIs (key performance indicators) that each contain five contributory factors aspects designed to address explicit and significant questions within the KPI where it is included. The six domains are briefly explained below: Human resources organisation and management. In this domain reference is made to an organisations personnel and emphasis is given to the importance of workforce recruitment, retention and management by an organisation. Innovation and renewal strategy. The focus here is how innovative an organisation is with an emphasis on currency and validity having a bearing upon understanding when renewal is required to processes and capabilities in an organisation. IT/business architecture. This domain is concerned with the relationship and interaction of entities involved in the information and applications in the business environment of an organisation. IT/business partnership. This domain reflects how the recent upgrading of the role of the IT function affects an organisation â€Å"Technology is critical to business success and this co-dependency drives the need for the IT and non-IT executives to pursue a win/win relationship Duffy (2003, p. 4). Operational excellence. This domain deals with the performance outcomes of the organisation. Duffy recognises that operational excellence can only be achieved if an organisation can recognise the value of ideals embedded in learning and partnerships, and can respond to market demands promptly. ROI strategy and management. This domain investigates the importance of the metrics and processes required for efficient and effective financial management within organisations and accepting IT costs and benefits as having parity with business ones. Duffys six domains address the â€Å"IT and non-IT assertion as well as certain strategic elements within an organisation but there are no explicitly stated maturity levels for them. Instead, Duffy merges the six domains of the model into four BITA scenarios where organisations fall into the following categories: â€Å"uneasy alliance†, â€Å"supplier/consumer relationship†, â€Å"co-dependence/grudging respect†, and â€Å"united we succeed, divided we fail†. These laymans terms are loose at best and though intended to be descriptive only serve to confuse in their interpretation. Such scenarios are the maturity levels in the model. 2.5.2 LUFTMANS MM (2003) Luftmans model (2003) was constructed on the basis of practical experience and research into enablers and inhibitors of alignment (Luftman et al, 1999), incorporating reference to various other models [here listed chronologically and not in order of importance or influence]: Nolans stages of growth model (Nolan, 1979), SAM (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1993) and CMMs (Capability Maturity Model) reach and range concept of (Keen, 1996). Luftmans MM is an endeavour based in six domains (skills/technology scope/partnership/governance/competency measurements/communications) to discover a specific organisations BITA profile. A brief description of each domain follows: Skills: addresses practical human resources issues such as cross-training in IT and business issues regarding the cultural environment and its impact on innovation and organisational change. Technology scope: refers to how much provision of comprehensible and flexible infrastructure comes from IT, the implementation of emergent technol Relationship between Business Strategy and IT Strategy Relationship between Business Strategy and IT Strategy BUSINESS-IT ALIGNMENT (BITA) The relationship between Business strategy and IT strategy and the influence of organisation culture on this strategic alignment in Saudi firms will form the basis of the research in this research. As such, the literature reviewed here will survey major research and practice in the business-IT strategic alignment domain for the purpose of deriving a research framework, or model, of business-IT strategic alignment that will unite the key principles contained within the literature. The intention is to develop a model simple enough for application that will provide a practical tool both for management and IT practitioners. 2.1 BITA A CHRONLOGICAL HISTORY Study on the strategic alignment concept will soon be reaching a quarter of a decades worth of knowledge. Henderson Sifonis (1988) began studying this notion during the late 80s when alignment emerged from a focus on strategic business planning and long-range IT planning where IT plans were created in support of corporate strategies Chan Reich (2007, p. 298). Nevertheless, strategic alignment has retained its interest and value in the business and IT communities and is still a popular topic today for organisations; perhaps even more so as technological advancement continues to dominate the exchange of information. Not surprisingly, its evolution has followed closely the developmental progress of IT itself which began with the operational era continuing through the re-engineering viewpoint and the new economy as figure 2.1 illustrates: The initial phase, the operational era, was concerned primarily with the operations that an organisation performed and focused on setting up mainframes, managing networks of PCs, and backing up organisational data. IT provided the nuts and bolts to facilitate automation of back-office functions through the development of software and had only a supportive role. Strategic alignment was thus viewed merely as a supporting act for every-day operations with its software applications. The second phase, re-engineering, arose from the increasing trend toward dependency on the automation of business processes by IT which not only offered back-office functions support but the promise of total automation within an organization as a whole through IT software applications. At this stage, IT was still viewed only as a supportive tool with no representation in the business end of an organisation. For example, business managers expressed their system needs which the IT department embraced and went on to develop and deploy a new software application in isolation. These early strategic alignment projects were not always successful. It was discovered that the development of software (with embedded processes) for automation of a business function was no guarantee of improvement over its earlier manual operation, indeed it could end up being more time-consuming and therefore less efficient as operators were not necessarily au fait with the application. There was not a full unde rstanding of what IT could do and how it could enhance a companys position beyond speeding up communications and thereby creating more ‘time for production or interfacing. A ‘Them and Us atmosphere prevailed with the ‘techies in a separate world to the mangers or drivers of the business, neither fully understanding the others needs [elements that are also considered further in the organisation culture aspect of this research and dealt with in the next chapter]. In the 1990s, Baets study of European banks (Baets, 1996) supported the findings of Vitale and colleagues ten years earlier (Vitale et al., 1986) that knowledge of IT had to be on a par with expert business knowledge for the two to create any comprehension and thereby effective application of strategic alignment in organisations. The third phase, new economy, saw IT commanding greater importance and status as organisations began to emerge that were embracing e-commerce. The demands of the new e-business projects required involvement of IT representatives in their management and strategic planning. The implementation of Internet technologies to augment business processes for productivity or profitability improvements brought the role of IT into the spotlight, according it recognition and strategic responsibility. Along with the newly elevated status of the old IT department there was a greater familiarity with technology and its capabilities and the prejudice that had previously scorned the ‘nerds dissipated somewhat as managers and personnel became more knowledgeable and the IT personnel more essential beyond a lab coat and a screwdriver [cf: artifacts causing division, Schein (1992) and Trompenaars (1997) in chapter 3]. Despite the current global economic crisis and the demise of the new economy IT con tinues to assume new responsibilities and organisations have even more need for strategic alignment projects. An IT department in 2010 must manage relations with partners and bear business responsibilities concerned with the development and customisation of software that will improve how a business functions; practice effective project management to control costs and maximise efficiency and ensure that the introduction of any new hardware or software support operations and infrastructure, â€Å" maintaining the crucial corporate data that helps managers throughout the enterprise to make intelligent and informed decisions Hoque (2002, p. 31). Kearns Lederer, (2003) and Seggie et al. (2006) agree that strategic alignment is a means to gain competitive advantage and Sabherwal Chan (2001), Wagner et al. (2005) and Zhou et al. (2008) further add that it improves organisational performance. 2.2 DEFINING BITA Determining a conclusive definition for alignment is as challenging as its function and application. There are many perspectives and multiple definitions including in chronological order: strategic alignment (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1993); harmony (Luftman, 1996); fit (Porter, 1996); bridge (Ciborra, 1997); integration (Weill and Broadbend, 1988); fusion (Smaczny, 2001); IS alignment (Chan et al., 2006; Benbya and McKelvey, 2006) business-IT alignment (Luftman, 2007); and IT alignment (Chan, 2007). It is understandable that there is such diversity as definitions depend on our understanding of language. The semantics involved are precarious because the new technologies are often described in technical terms and applying simplistic synonyms to explain the intention of alignment in the context of business IT in terminology that is understood without associated jargon is very difficult. Overall, the definitions offered, though they have nuances of difference between them, do relate to the improvement of organisational capability through technology. Broadbent and Weills (1993) early definition, purports that it is the degree to which information strategies support, stimulate and/or enable any business strategies. A later definition offered by Reich and Benbasat (1996) asserts much the same but frames it in terms of the missions of the IT and business objectives and plans on both sides. Luftman (2000) was the first to introduce the element of evolution into the definition and argued that it required strength [as the key element] from leadership, senior management and working relationships, combined with a complete understanding of the business and technical environments, fitting prioritisation, mutual trust, and of course, effective communication. Hirschheim and Sabherwals (2001) definition included the idea of a reciprocal arrangement as fundamental to its meaning and stated that alignment was the achieved between strategy and supporting structures that allowed both IS (information systems) and business to function and communica te responsively each way to one another. Most accepted definitions do highlight the alignment dichotomy described by Kearns and Lederer, (2000), where the argument is that the IS plan ought to align with the business plan (ISP-BP) and vice versa (BP-ISP) the business plan ought to align with the IS plan. Each perspective serves to increase the understanding of IT at organisational level and assist the prioritisation of IT projects. Reich and Benbasat (1996) were protagonists of the ISP-BP model, which they declared signified, IS managements comprehension of the business strategy. Whereas Bensaou and Earl (1998) contrarily preferred the BP-ISP alignment model as they believed it assumed a greater understanding on the part of the business comprehension of the IT aspects and thus the plan and the resources would ally more effectively together as a result of this knowledge, understanding and commitment. These elements are believed to be enablers of alignment (Luftman et al., 1999). In the definitions offered some view alignment as a specific happening or event and others regard it is an ongoing process. Duffy (2001) saw BITA as a process of achieving competitive advantage through a developed and sustained business and IT symbiosis. Maes et al. (2000) claimed BITA to be a continuous and continual process that involved management and design sub-processes with conscious and coherent interrelation of all elements and mechanisms within the business/IT relationship offering contribution to the ongoing performance of the organisation. Moodys (2003) definition saw BITA as a form of comprehensive resources management (people/ technology/ outside resources) that provides a set of IT services and capabilities that are in line with the business needs and priorities. And Senn (2003) was assured that each action executed by IT individuals was to focus on the creation and delivery of shareholder/stakeholder value through supporting business operations and/or achieving business goals. 2.3 BITA PERSPECTIVES AND DIMENSIONS With the diversity of definitions offered to explain the meaning of the strategic alignment concept, as outlined in the previous section, there is a need to further explore the differences to discover why there is such variety. Part of the explanation may be that as the concept has evolved it has been closely linked to the evolution of technological capabilities. Attitudes have changed as organisations have adopted new technologies and personnel have become more familiar with their potential and their operation. These dynamics and the evolution of strategic alignment are reflected in the number of conceptualisations and their definitions will be analysed in the context of the differing perspectives afforded to them. BITA with regard to its perception as a strategy, an event, a continuous process, a performance indicator, an assessment tool, a social influence and as an operation will be briefly outlined below to expand on the definitions in the literature from their different dimensi ons. 2.3.1 BITA AS A STRATEGY It has been a tradition for literature to refer to Business-IT alignment as ‘strategic alignment. Considering it in these terms frames it as an intellectual notion rather than something more concrete or practical and as such it can be high-jacked to represent whatever strategy suits the organisation that is considering alignment. There is no harm in referencing alignment in this manner for it allows debate and therefore change, essential for evolution and adopting a ‘strategy suitable to the structure, culture and level of alignment required. By referring to it in this way however, the literature suggests that strategic alignment is dependent on the fit between IT strategy and business strategy, and on how the IS plans are established to support such a fit (Teo and King, 1997). Many authors in the strategic alignment field approach alignment purely at the strategic level, e.g. Baets (1992), Broadbent and Weill (1993), Chan et al. (1997), and Luftman (2003). At the core of their conceptualisations is the notion that business strategy itself must first be analysed and only thereafter be used to determine a complementary IT strategy. In this scenario the business strategy is paramount and the IT strategy contribution secondary, it is a means to an end rather than a means in its own right. However, despite the alignment between business strategy and IT strategy where emphasis is laid on defining IS strategy plans (Benbya and Mckelvey, 2006) strategic alignment continues to be problematical in many organisations. Thus, reaching an agreed definition that details IS strategic plans is important for strategic alignment; however, is it not enough on its own for the achievement of such alignment (van der Zee and de Jong, 1999). 2.3.2 STRUCTURAL TOPOLOGY AFFECTING BITA The literature often takes for granted the strategic element of the concept and delves further into its implications for organisations, concentrating on the behaviour and nature of BITA what it does when you introduce it [and also is a strong feature of the organisational culture types discussed in the following chapter]. This depends largely on what type of a structure into which it is introduced. A formal structure, an informal structure or a hybrid structure, each having its own merits and each being capable of effective function when the circumstances and environment are conducive to the choice made (Brown and Magill, 1994). Against their three identified structures, Earl (1989) identified five potentially suitable structures: centralized, business unit, business venture, decentralised, and federal. Tavakolian (1989) found a direct correlation between competitive and conservative strategies within an environment and the corresponding decentralised or centralised IT structures ev ident in an organisation and this finding is supported to some extent by Bergeron et al. (2001) with the caveat that it is not solely the complexity of structure that impacts performance but that other factors are influential too. Chans (2001) view is that informal structure, â€Å"†¦relationship-based structures that transcend the formal division of labour and coordination of tasks†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Chan, 2001, p67) can be just as effective as formal structure with the human element rather than intellectualised models and processes driving alignment, often with more impact and success than a formal arrangement. Structure, therefore can add a new dimension to the perspective of alignment as it places it in a setting that will impose its own constraints on the practice and execution of alignment exercises and ideals. 2.3.3 BITA AS AN END IN ITSELF For some authors it alignment doesnt seem to ‘do anything rather it is a business unit that lacks the dynamics others see in it. The implication is that it is something that is ‘brought in like an object concrete and physical and recognised by its static end state where some sort of equilibrium is achieved between the IT and business sides in an organisation. In the previous section, some of the definitions only present strategic alignment as an outcome achieved through the employment and adoption of different models, techniques and processes (Ortiz, 2003). Broadbent and Weill (1993), Chan et al. (1997), Luftman (2003) and Reich and Benbasat (1996), also see strategic alignment as something to be arrived at, a destination that is terminated when an optimal situation has been achieved. This may be a misunderstanding of the full meaning as the attitude that having strategic alignment the business married with the technology required for effective fulfillment of objectives cannot stand alone and it would be naà ¯ve to believe that BITA was a panacea for all business problems so perhaps the authors see it as an optimal achievement when all the other factors, or perspectives, also come into play to make BITA a worthwhile ‘thing in itself. 2.3.4 BITA AS A CONTINUING PROCESS If a business is static it will stagnate and if a business wishes to grow, like IT, it must always continue to evolve through a naturally occurring dynamics that are integral to the implementation of policies such as strategic alignment. Baets (1996), Luftman et al. (1999), and Rondinelli (2001) agree that these dynamics require constant monitoring and appropriate adjustment. Therefore, strategic alignment is not something attainable but something constantly in development, as it is variously described by Henderson and Venkatraman (1993), Baets 1996, Maes et al. (2000), Duffy (2001), Moody (2003), and Senn (2004). â€Å"An issue that has remained relatively unchallenged and unquestioned is how to align IT that is relatively fixed once implemented in an organization, with a business strategy and associated information requirements that are constantly in need of adjustment Galliers (2007, p. 228). Even within this perspective there are two schools of thought; the classical school of thought with emphasis on contingency adaptations and the ‘processual approach (Whittington, 1993) that emphasises the importance of addressing internal and power issues, particularly how cultural elements influence the formal elements of rationality and the decision process in strategic alignment and rejects IT as merely an adaptation but gives it greater weight as a resource. Furthermore, practitioners are being advised to adopt a view of strategic alignment as a continual process. In Pearlmans (2004) article advice to CIOs, in summary, is that they should communicate, demonstrate, lead, collaborate, govern and build if they wish to achieve alignment. 2.3.5 BITA FOR PERFORMANCE INDICATION It is the consideration of several authors that strategic alignment is not only a process but also a tool whereby they can reflect on the business value that organisations might possess, or not. In studies analysed the relationship between strategic alignment and competitive advantage or organisational performance were tracked, (Venkatraman, 1989; Sabherwal and Chan, 2001; Kearns and Lederer, 2003; Wagner, 2005; Seggie et al., 2006; Zhou, 2008). Tallon and Kraemer (2003) were responsible for the additional concept of business value being included as an element to the performance indication point of view of strategic alignment and analyse business value by relating it to organisational IT goals and measuring the IT return of investment from a strategic alignment viewpoint. 2.3.6 ASSESSMENT USING BITA In response to the question: `how do organisations know how good their strategic alignment is? different authors have developed Maturity Models (MMs) (de Koning and der Mark, 2002; Duffy, 2001; Luftman, 2003; van der Raadt et al., 2005). MMs describe the development of a specific domain over time. This perspective is in itself a more mature outlook than other perspectives as it has to consider many of the dynamics before being able to construct an effective strategic alignment. Because of the in-built review and evaluation required for this perspective it has to look at all aspects that the alignment may affect. Researchwork and systems are subject to assessment and revision through these maturity models and their monitoring. On the basis of the assessments of those MMs, organisations can fine tune and calibrate their strategic alignment: Identify any alignment-related aspects/processes improvements required to obtain a higher level of strategic alignment maturity. Initiate any change processes to ensure that the identified improvements eventuate. In much the same way, acceptance of the cyclical nature of strategic alignment as posited by Burns (1996) ‘lead-lag model implies assessment in response to intermittent predictable and unpredictable changes as does the ‘punctuated equilibrium model of Sabherwal et al. (2001) where interruptions to stability demand a fresh look at the long term plan and goals of strategic alignment. 2.3.7 BITA AS A SOCIAL INFLUENCE If an organisation intends to work toward achieving strategic alignment it will necessitate communication that will involve negotiation, collaboration and mutual understanding elements not always present a specific organisational structure or culture. This communication can blur the boundaries of traditional or conventional approaches and therefore becomes a driving force behind social attitudes and perceptions. Chan (2002) and Huang and Hu (2007) uphold this view that maintaining effective communication in an organisation will impact on corporate strategic alignment culture. Concord must be developed for effective channels of communication, transparency in the exchange of knowledge and sharing of learning (Hoque, 2002; Daneva and Hu, 2007), and the use of informal communication is just as important a factor for adjustment and control (Mintzberg, 1993; Chan, 2002; vander Raadt et al., 2005), to generate an atmosphere of trust and an effective response to business needs from an IT pe rspective. Reich and Benbasats (2000) study further confirms that strategic alignment is more likely to succeed when business and IT executives have an [importantly] expressed and [understood] shared common vision of ITs contribution. 2.3.8 BITA AND OPERATIONS Strategic alignment [when it is all-encompassing and embraced by all as part of an organisational culture] necessarily involves organisational issues of communication, structure and, particularly, coordination processes that are operational to the business in specifically performed actions (Wieringa, 2008). Operational strategic alignment consists of aligning the operational activities of IT and business people with each other so that optimal IT support for business requirements is achieved. In this context, Peak and Guynes (2003) put the onus of success on the IT side of the equation, though it does imply some reciprocity in the initial communication of ‘quality requirements and they state that strategic alignment will only be attained when an organisations IT staff can deliver quality information and quality IT products and services to the business side. 2.4 BITA MODELS 2.4.1 MIT90S FRAMEWORK (1991) During the 1980s, research conducted at the world renowned MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) initiated interest in the academic community to the potential of the strategic power of IT. In the attempt to exploit the possibilities revealed in the model from the research it was suggested that radical innovation involving IT investment could carry substantial reward if key elements of strategy, structure, technology, management processes and individuals and their roles were kept in alignment (Morton, 1991). Organisation can be visualised as a set of five forces in dynamic equilibrium subject to external influences from the technological environment and the socio-economic environment. In this view, a core task of general management is to ensure that all five ‘forces (represented by the boxes), can flow without restriction or impediment in order to achieve the organisations goals and objectives. With management at the centre of the model its role is central too. Though some areas might not necessarily be in direct contact with each other they are connected via the management process which plays the principal role and ensures organisational response to shifts in demands from the external variables. 2.4.2 THE HENDERSON AND VENKATRAMAN STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT MODEL (1993) Henderson Venkatramans (1993) strategic model (Figure 2.3) is a widely used four-part illustration favoured by many researchers and organisations for the assessment of the level of alignment in a company. Each of the four parts [quarters] contain three distinct and individuals elements which, when collectively analysed, can be used to define each quarter operationally. These twelve elements- further expanded in Table 1 are used to establish the level and type of alignment within a corporation (Henderson Venkatraman, 1993; Papp, 1995). Table 1 Components of the Strategic Alignment Model Within the model it can be seen how external influences may affect change on either processes [lower sectors] or strategies [upper sectors]. A vertical link couples the upper and lowers sectors and shows the relationship between strategic fit to accommodate strategy with infrastructure. A horizontal link for functional integration shows how IT strategies must adapt as business strategies change, and displays the dependence and required response of each sector upon anothers adaptations particularly in relation to skills and operation. Giving focus to three of the four quarters of the model at a given time can permit a simultaneous address to both strategic fit and functional integration (Papp, 1995; Luftman et al., 1999). The SAM (Strategic Alignment Model) model has proven empirical authenticity and has provided valid conceptual and practical value (Goedvolk et al,. 1997; Avison et al., 2004). Nevertheless, it is subject to confines, eg, the applicability of the SAM model may vary depending on the IT-intensity of an industry and the assumptions expounded might not be relevant to the circumstances (Burn and Szeto, 2000). As mentioned, the model does have recognition and a number of scholars have further elaborated on it (e.g., Luftman et al., 1993). Goedvolk et al.s (1997) extension of the SAM model gave greater focus to technical and architectural attributes. Avison et al.s (2004) addition to the SAM model was able to provide practitioners and academics with further practical ways to attain alignment in their advocacy of examining projects retrospectively to determine alignment. This form of alignment monitoring, can allow pre-emption in a change in strategy and implementation of a new alignment perspective by re-allocation of project resources. The SAM model inspired Maes et al. (2000) to produce a framework that incorporates even more layers pertinent to function and strategy where information providers are separated from the systems providing information in a new information domain representing knowledge, [and exchange of information through] communication and coordination. Their third dimension addresses specific sub-architecture areas. 2.4.3 IS CAPABILITY AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE MODEL (2004) Peppard and Wards model (2004) shows IS capability at the core of everything, inherently affecting competencies and emanating an influence on all areas that interrelate [business strategy/business operations/IT operations and services/IS/IT strategy] and impact upon the organisational performance. Such focus on the importance of this core element demonstrates the value IS capabilities can create and is therefore an organisation-wide responsibility that cannot be delegated to the IS function alone (Peppard et al., 2000). Peppard and Ward (2004) later asserted that though an organisation might envisage an IT based innovative strategy, it will be their IS capabilities that permit such a vision to come to fruition. 2.4.4 CO-EVOLUTIONARY IS ALIGNMENT (2006) By 2006 the model suggested by Benbya and McKelvey (2006) through its graphic presentation appears a more fluid representation suggesting, even visually, that there is more of a flow between relationships in alignment. It still addresses the need to analyse relationships between business and IT (horizontal IS alignment) but introduces a need to merge the views at different levels [strategic/operational/individual] of analysis (vertical IS alignment) through shared understanding and communication. The co-evolutionary IS alignment perspective conveys the necessity for mutual adaptation within a dynamic interplay of co-evolving elements. Co-evolution does not necessarily seek harmony between the elements but a respect for their position and the innovation that may result from the circumstances and environments in which they function. 2.5 ASSESSMENT APPROACHES OF BITA In this section MMs (maturity models) are referred to that have been developed for the assessment of BITA. 2.5.1 DUFFYS MM (2001) Duffys (2001) MM is founded on the principle that a dependable, mutually compatible partnership between IT and business executives is elementary in order to achieve a worthwhile BITA. Without this premise there cannot be a successful desired outcome. Accepting that there is a level of interdependence between IT and business objectives, any schism or division between IT and non-IT areas would sabotage any efforts to establish alignment. This model is arranged about a series of key success drivers (the domains: human resources organisation and management/innovation and renewal strategy/IT/business architecture/IT/business partnership/operational excellence/ROI strategy management) which are operationalised in KPIs (key performance indicators) that each contain five contributory factors aspects designed to address explicit and significant questions within the KPI where it is included. The six domains are briefly explained below: Human resources organisation and management. In this domain reference is made to an organisations personnel and emphasis is given to the importance of workforce recruitment, retention and management by an organisation. Innovation and renewal strategy. The focus here is how innovative an organisation is with an emphasis on currency and validity having a bearing upon understanding when renewal is required to processes and capabilities in an organisation. IT/business architecture. This domain is concerned with the relationship and interaction of entities involved in the information and applications in the business environment of an organisation. IT/business partnership. This domain reflects how the recent upgrading of the role of the IT function affects an organisation â€Å"Technology is critical to business success and this co-dependency drives the need for the IT and non-IT executives to pursue a win/win relationship Duffy (2003, p. 4). Operational excellence. This domain deals with the performance outcomes of the organisation. Duffy recognises that operational excellence can only be achieved if an organisation can recognise the value of ideals embedded in learning and partnerships, and can respond to market demands promptly. ROI strategy and management. This domain investigates the importance of the metrics and processes required for efficient and effective financial management within organisations and accepting IT costs and benefits as having parity with business ones. Duffys six domains address the â€Å"IT and non-IT assertion as well as certain strategic elements within an organisation but there are no explicitly stated maturity levels for them. Instead, Duffy merges the six domains of the model into four BITA scenarios where organisations fall into the following categories: â€Å"uneasy alliance†, â€Å"supplier/consumer relationship†, â€Å"co-dependence/grudging respect†, and â€Å"united we succeed, divided we fail†. These laymans terms are loose at best and though intended to be descriptive only serve to confuse in their interpretation. Such scenarios are the maturity levels in the model. 2.5.2 LUFTMANS MM (2003) Luftmans model (2003) was constructed on the basis of practical experience and research into enablers and inhibitors of alignment (Luftman et al, 1999), incorporating reference to various other models [here listed chronologically and not in order of importance or influence]: Nolans stages of growth model (Nolan, 1979), SAM (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1993) and CMMs (Capability Maturity Model) reach and range concept of (Keen, 1996). Luftmans MM is an endeavour based in six domains (skills/technology scope/partnership/governance/competency measurements/communications) to discover a specific organisations BITA profile. A brief description of each domain follows: Skills: addresses practical human resources issues such as cross-training in IT and business issues regarding the cultural environment and its impact on innovation and organisational change. Technology scope: refers to how much provision of comprehensible and flexible infrastructure comes from IT, the implementation of emergent technol